The Arab Islamic Conquest
Within a decade of the Byzantine reconquest, armies united under the banner of the newly
emerged religion of Islam swept out of the Arabian Peninsula. Led by the Rashidun Caliphs,
successors to the Prophet Muhammad, they rapidly conquered vast territories from the
Byzantine and Sasanian empires. Palestine fell relatively quickly; the Byzantine army was
decisively defeated at the Battle of Yarmouk (636 CE), and Jerusalem surrendered to Caliph
Umar ibn al-Khattab in person around 637 or 638 CE. The conquest of Gaza occurred around
the same time.
The transition to Muslim rule was, in many areas, relatively peaceful. Caliph Umar reportedly
entered Jerusalem respectfully and negotiated the "Umariyya Covenant" (or Covenant of Omar)
with the Patriarch Sophronius. This pact granted Christians (and by extension, Jews, also
considered "People of the Book") protection and freedom to practice their religion in exchange
for acknowledging Muslim sovereignty and paying a poll tax known as jizya. As dhimmis
(protected non-Muslims), they retained their communal structures and religious sites. Early
accounts, like that of the pilgrim Arculf in the 7th century, suggest generally tolerable conditions
for Christians under the early Caliphates (Rashidun and the subsequent Umayyad dynasty).
The Islamic conquest fundamentally integrated Palestine into a new political, cultural, and
religious sphere. Jerusalem rapidly gained immense significance within Islam, becoming
recognized as the third holiest city after Mecca and Medina. This sanctity derives primarily from
the belief in Prophet Muhammad's miraculous Night Journey (Isra) to Jerusalem and Ascension
(Mi'raj) to heaven from the Temple Mount (known in Islam as Haram al-Sharif - the Noble
Sanctuary). The Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik commissioned the construction of the
magnificent Dome of the Rock on this site (completed c. 691 CE), followed by the Al-Aqsa
Mosque, cementing Jerusalem's Islamic identity alongside its profound importance to Jews and
Christians. Gaza, too, developed significance in early Islam, becoming a center of Islamic
jurisprudence, associated with the influential scholar Imam al-Shafi'i, founder of one of the major
schools of Sunni law. This establishment of Islamic sanctity created the complex, tripartite
religious claim to the land that persists today.
Umayyad, Abbasid, and Fatimid Rule
Under the Umayyad Caliphate (661-750 CE), which established its capital nearby in Damascus,
Palestine generally experienced stability and benefited from imperial patronage. The Umayyads
undertook significant building projects, including the Jerusalem mosques and palaces
elsewhere. Caliph Sulayman founded the city of Ramla, which served as the administrative
capital of the Jund Filastin (military district of Palestine). Christians held important positions at
the Umayyad court.
The Abbasid Revolution in 750 CE shifted the Caliphate's center eastward to Baghdad. Some
scholars argue this led to Palestine becoming more peripheral, potentially experiencing
economic decline and reduced imperial investment. Abbasid caliphs like Harun al-Rashid
maintained tolerant policies, even corresponding with Charlemagne regarding Christian pilgrims
, but the period also saw increasing instability, internal conflicts (like the civil war after Harun al-Rashid's death), tribal rebellions, and raids on institutions like the monasteries in the Judean
wilderness.
From the late 9th century onwards, central Abbasid control weakened, and Palestine was often
ruled by semi-autonomous dynasties based in Egypt, such as the Tulunids (late 9th century)
and Ikhshidids (mid-10th century). This period saw further conflict, including destructive raids by
Qarmatian groups. In the late 10th century, the Shi'a Fatimid dynasty, also based in Egypt,
conquered the region. Fatimid rule was interrupted by challenges from local tribes (like the
Jarrahids, who briefly established a rival caliphate ), Byzantine incursions, and the arrival of the
Seljuk Turks in the late 11th century. The Fatimid Caliph al-Hakim's persecution of Christians
and Jews and destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre around 1009 CE marked a
departure from earlier tolerance and contributed to the later Crusader movement. The
subsequent period of Fatimid-Seljuk conflict created further turmoil. This overview demonstrates
that the experience under "Islamic rule" varied considerably across dynasties and time periods,
ranging from stability and tolerance to neglect, conflict, and persecution, significantly impacting
all communities in the region.
The Crusades
In 1095, Pope Urban II called for a crusade to reclaim the Holy Land from Muslim rule, fueled by
reports of Seljuk disruption of pilgrimage routes and Fatimid persecution, as well as broader
political ambitions. The First Crusade arrived in Palestine in 1099, culminating in the brutal
capture of Jerusalem, where the Crusaders massacred many of the city's Muslim and Jewish
inhabitants. They established the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, along with other Crusader states
in the Levant.
For nearly two centuries (with interruptions), parts of Palestine were ruled by European
Crusaders (often referred to as Franks). They established feudal structures, built numerous
castles, churches, and monasteries, and engaged in colonization efforts. Their presence led to
ongoing warfare with neighboring Muslim powers. The Muslim counter-crusade gained
momentum under figures like Zangi, Nur al-Din, and most famously, Salah al-Din Yusuf ibn
Ayyub (Saladin), the founder of the Ayyubid dynasty. Saladin decisively defeated the Crusader
army at the Battle of Hattin in 1187 and recaptured Jerusalem shortly after. Although
subsequent Crusades attempted to regain territory, the Crusader presence gradually eroded.
Jerusalem was briefly restored to Crusader control through diplomacy in the 13th century but
definitively retaken for Islam by the Ayyubid sultan al-Salih Ayyub in 1244. The Crusades,
though representing a relatively short interlude of European Christian rule, had a profound
impact, intensifying religious animosity between Islam and Western Christendom and leaving
behind enduring historical memories and narratives of conflict that resonated in later centuries.
The Mamluk Sultanate
In the mid-13th century, a new power emerged in Egypt. The Mamluks, originally military slaves
(primarily of Turkic and later Circassian origin) who formed the elite corps of the Ayyubid armies,
overthrew their Ayyubid masters in Cairo in 1250 CE. Ten years later, in 1260, the Mamluk army
achieved a pivotal victory at the Battle of Ain Jalut in northern Palestine, halting the westward
advance of the formidable Mongol Empire. This victory secured Mamluk control over Syria,
including Palestine, which they would rule from Cairo for over 250 years.
The Mamluk Sultanate, particularly under formidable early rulers like Baybars I (1260–77) and
Qalawun (1279–90), consolidated its power, reformed administration, and systematically eliminated the remaining Crusader strongholds along the coast, culminating in the conquest of
Acre in 1291. Palestine formed an important part of the Mamluk province of Damascus. The
Mamluks were significant patrons of Islamic art, architecture, and religious institutions,
undertaking extensive building programs, especially in Jerusalem, which saw the construction of
numerous schools (madrasas), pilgrim hostels, and renovated mosques. They also established
infrastructure like khans (caravanserais) and postal routes.
However, Mamluk rule became increasingly oppressive and economically burdensome over
time, particularly during the later Circassian or Burji Mamluk period (1382–1517). The region
suffered from internal power struggles, heavy taxation, administrative corruption, and
devastating plagues, including the Black Death in the mid-14th century. While Mamluk rhetoric
emphasized jihad against external enemies (Crusaders and Mongols), conditions for local
Christian and Jewish communities often deteriorated, facing discriminatory measures and
sometimes violence from officials or mobs, although sultans occasionally intervened. There
appears to have been some demographic decline among minorities due to conversions or
emigration. Mamluk rule reinforced Palestine's status as a territory governed from Egypt, a
recurring pattern in its history, with its administration heavily influenced by the military character
and priorities of the ruling caste based in Cairo. Their focus on military legitimacy, forged in
battles against Mongols and Crusaders, shaped their governance style.