Early Statehood: Challenges and Consolidation
The decades following Israel's establishment in 1948 were marked by formidable challenges and rapid development. The fledgling state faced the immense task of absorbing hundreds of thousands of Jewish immigrants, not only Holocaust survivors from Europe but also, increasingly, Jews emigrating or expelled from Arab countries across the Middle East and North Africa. This mass immigration (aliyah) more than doubled Israel's Jewish population within its first few years.
Simultaneously, Israel focused on building robust state institutions – a parliamentary democracy (the Knesset), a unified military (the IDF), a national economy, and social welfare systems. Security remained a paramount concern, given the hostility of neighboring Arab states, frequent cross-border infiltrations (often by Palestinian refugees attempting to return or attack), and retaliatory Israeli raids. This period saw continued conflict, including the 1956 Suez Crisis, in which Israel, Britain, and France attacked Egypt following the nationalization of the Suez Canal. Israel briefly occupied the Gaza Strip and Sinai during this conflict before withdrawing under international pressure.
The 1967 Six-Day War and its Aftermath
Tensions between Israel and its Arab neighbors (primarily Egypt, Syria, and Jordan) escalated dramatically in the spring of 1967. Following Egyptian actions perceived by Israel as provocations – including the closure of the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping and the mobilization of troops in Sinai – Israel launched a pre-emptive strike on June 5, 1967. The resulting Six-Day War ended in a swift and decisive Israeli victory.
In just six days, Israel captured the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria. The capture of East Jerusalem, including the Old City and its holy sites (especially the Western Wall), held profound religious and emotional significance for many Israelis. The outcome of the 1967 war fundamentally reshaped the Arab-Israeli conflict. Israel now controlled territories inhabited by over a million Palestinian Arabs (in the West Bank and Gaza), initiating what would become a long-term military occupation. UN Security Council Resolution 242, passed in November 1967, called for Israeli withdrawal from territories occupied in the recent conflict in exchange for peace and secure borders, becoming a cornerstone for future peace negotiations, though interpretations of its requirements differed. The occupation itself, its duration, associated policies, and the Palestinian struggle against it became the central focus of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict for the subsequent decades.
Occupation, Settlements, and Political Developments
Following the 1967 war, Israel established a military administration to govern the West Bank and Gaza Strip. While initially debating the future of these territories, successive Israeli governments began establishing civilian settlements in the occupied areas, starting shortly after the war. These settlements, considered illegal under international law by most of the international community (as violations of the Fourth Geneva Convention prohibiting an occupying power from transferring its own population into occupied territory), grew significantly over the decades, particularly in the West Bank and East Jerusalem. Settlement expansion became a major source of friction with the Palestinians and a significant obstacle in peace negotiations.
Israel's internal political landscape also evolved. The Labor Party, dominant since independence, lost power for the first time in 1977 to the right-leaning Likud party, led by Menachem Begin. This political shift reflected changing demographics and ideologies within Israel, including a greater emphasis on retaining control over the occupied territories, particularly the West Bank (referred to by many Israelis by the biblical names Judea and Samaria). Debates over the future of the territories, security strategies, and the relationship with the Palestinians became central features of Israeli politics.
Wars, Conflicts, and Peace Efforts
The decades after 1967 saw further major conflicts. In October 1973, Egypt and Syria launched a surprise attack on Israeli forces in the Sinai and Golan Heights during the Jewish holiday of Yom Kippur. Though initially caught off guard and suffering heavy losses, Israel eventually repelled the attacks and pushed back (Yom Kippur War). This war shattered Israel's sense of invincibility after 1967 and ultimately paved the way for peace negotiations with Egypt.
Under the mediation of US President Jimmy Carter, Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin and Egyptian President Anwar Sadat signed the Camp David Accords in 1978, followed by a formal Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty in 1979. This landmark agreement led to Israel's withdrawal from the Sinai Peninsula in exchange for full diplomatic relations and peace with Egypt, the most powerful Arab state. However, the Accords' framework for Palestinian autonomy in the West Bank and Gaza failed to materialize.
In 1982, Israel invaded Lebanon (First Lebanon War) with the stated aim of destroying the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) infrastructure there, which had been used to launch attacks against northern Israel. The war led to a lengthy Israeli occupation of southern Lebanon and the PLO's expulsion from Beirut but did not bring lasting peace.
Palestinian resistance to occupation intensified, culminating in the First Intifada (1987-1993), a largely grassroots uprising that began in the Gaza Strip and spread throughout the occupied territories. This sustained popular protest, combining civil disobedience with stone-throwing and eventually more violent confrontations, put significant pressure on Israel and garnered international attention.
The changing political climate led to secret negotiations between Israel and the PLO, resulting in the Oslo Accords, signed on the White House lawn in September 1993. The Accords established a framework for Palestinian self-government in parts of the West Bank and Gaza Strip through the creation of the Palestinian Authority (PA), and envisioned a five-year interim period leading to a final status agreement on core issues like borders, settlements, refugees, and Jerusalem. This process led to a peace treaty between Israel and Jordan in 1994. However, the Oslo process faltered due to continued violence (including suicide bombings by Palestinian militant groups like Hamas, which opposed the Accords, and Israeli military actions), ongoing settlement expansion, disagreements over implementation, and the failure to reach a final agreement. The collapse of the Camp David Summit in 2000 was followed by the outbreak of the Second Intifada (Al-Aqsa Intifada), a period of much greater violence lasting until roughly 2005. The repeated failure of peace processes highlights the deep complexities and mistrust, the impact of violence and settlement activity, internal political divisions on both sides, and the fundamental disagreements over core issues that have prevented a lasting resolution.
Contemporary Israel
In the 21st century, Israel continues to grapple with the unresolved conflict with the Palestinians, ongoing security threats (including from Hamas in Gaza and Hezbollah in Lebanon), and internal societal divisions. The construction of a separation barrier around and within the West Bank during the Second Intifada altered the landscape and access for Palestinians. Israel maintains a technologically advanced economy but faces significant social and economic disparities. Its political scene remains dynamic and often polarized, particularly regarding issues of religion and state, the occupation, and pathways to peace or conflict management.